2,000-Year-Old Roman Shoe Found in a Well

A 2000-year-old Roman shoe was found in a well at The Saalburg park in Germany.

On the ridge of the Taunus, Germany, the Saalburg Roman fort was built by Romans (circa 90 AD) when they came north into the German provinces.

This fort protected the boundary between the Roman Empire and the Germanic tribal territories. At its peak, 2,000 people lived in the fort and village. It remained active until around 260 AD.

The sophisticated design of the shoe indicates that the owner must have been a wealthy woman of high status.

2,000-Year-Old Roman Shoe Found in a Well

Hellenistic Bronze Statue Of a Boy Riding a Horse

Dated to around 150–140 BC, the Jockey of Artemision is a large Hellenistic bronze statue of a young boy riding a horse.

This statue was lost in an ancient shipwreck and was discovered in 1926. This may have saved the statue from being melted down and destroyed for its raw material.

This bronze statue was retrieved in pieces from the shipwreck off Cape Artemision in Euboea.

The image of the goddess Nike is engraved on the horse's right thigh, holding a wreath in raised hands -- a brand for racehorses in Ancient Greece.

The statue is displayed at the National Archaeological Museum, Athens from, 1972.

Dated to around 150–140 BC, the Jockey of Artemision is a large Hellenistic bronze statue of a young boy riding a horse

The Ancient Egyptians Used Makeup and Perfume

The Ancient Egyptians used makeup and perfume not only to look and feel good, but for spiritual and ritual reasons, as well.

Many women and men wore eyeshadow, eyeliner, blusher and lipstick. 

Eyeliner was made by crushing kohl or charcoal, eyeshadow from crushed stones like malachite and lipstick from crushed carmine beetles. These were ground on cosmetic palettes.

Cosmetic Box from the tomb of Sennedjem - PICRYL - Public Domain Media Search Engine Public Domain Image (Sennedjem was an ancient Egyptian official active in the early Nineteenth Dynasty-period, lasting from 1292 BC to 1189 BC)

Ancient Egyptian cosmetic set from c. 1550–1458 BC, featuring, from left to right, a kohl tube, a razor, a pair of tweezers, a whetstone, and a mirror, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Egyptians also often wore perfume cones on the head. These were made by mixing oils, resins and fat and containing myrrh (perfume from tree resin).

These cones, when placed on the head, would melt from the body heat and release perfume.

The first known depiction of the perfume cones dates from the reign of Hatshepsut (c. 1507–1458 BC), who was was the Great Royal Wife of Pharaoh Thutmose II. She reigned in her own right circa 1473–58 BCE.

Painting of Lady Tjepu, 1390–1353 BC

Wealthy people of both sexes wore wigs made from human hair and date palm fibre.

Merit's wig from the tomb of Kha and Merit, 14th century BCE, https://collezioni.museoegizio.it/en-GB/material/S_8499

Henna, was believed to drive away evil spirits. Nails and hands were painted with henna, and henna hair dye, originated in ancient Egypt.

The Dwarf Elephant of Cyprus

During the Late Pleistocene, c. 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago, an extinct species of dwarf elephant inhabited the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.

Named Palaeoloxodon cypriotes, these dwarf elephants are believed to descend from Palaeoloxodon xylophagou, which was about 3.5 times larger than P. cypriotes.

Both of these species, are believed to descend from the large Palaeoloxodon antiquus (straight-tusked elephant) of mainland Europe and Western Asia, which probably swam to the island long ago from mainland Europe.

The most recent remains of P. cypriotes, date to around 12,000 years ago.

Palaeoloxodon cypriotes was around 1 metre (3.3 ft) tall and is an example of insular dwarfism, where due to the ecological conditions on islands, such as limited food sources over generations, animals develop a reduced body size.

The P. cypriotes probably weighed about 200 kilograms, a weight reduction of 98% from its ancestors, which weighed about 10 tonnes.

The island of Cyprus also has the remains of a dwarf hippopotamus, which lived there from the Pleistocene until the early Holocene (about 10,000 years ago).

Tusk of a young P. cypriotes, Catlemur

Mitochondrial DNA (maternal line) points to its closest living relative, being the common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius).

At Aetokremmos (which translates to "Cliff of the Eagles") near present day Limassol, excavations have un-earthed bones and artifacts dating 13,000 years back. This makes it the oldest known organised settlement in Cyprus.

Evidence of the diets of the inhabitants are pygmy hippos, dwarf elephants, fish, bustards, fallow deer and pig.

Dwarf elephants inhabited many Mediterranean islands during the Pleistocene.

Pygmy hippos were also found in other Mediterranean areas, such as Crete, Malta and Sicily.

Paleoloxodon cypriotes was comparable in size to Palaeoloxodon falconeri from Sicily (depicted) SlvrHwk

The Possible Inventor of Underpants

English philosopher Jeremy Bentham has been dead since 1832, but he resides on the ground floor of University College London's Student Centre in a glass case,

When he died n 1832, Bentham left instructions for his body to be dissected and permanently preserved as an "auto-icon" (or self-image). 

Motivated by rationality and his battle against superstition, Bentham was inspired by the need for bodies for medical education and research.

Before 1832, the Murder Act 1752 stipulated that only the corpses of executed murderers could be used for dissection.

The Anatomy Act of 1832, allowed the legal procurement of corpses of bodies that remained unclaimed 48 hours after death.

Almost no-one donated their body to science, so Jeremy Bentham donated his own.

Bentham's skeleton is still dressed in his own clothes, but has a wax head. The original mummified head was damaged, and fears that it would frighten people saw it replaced with one of wax.

The philosopher and jurist Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), "auto-icon" 

Head of the philosopher and jurist Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)

As a social reformer and radical, Bentham is also famous for the prison Panopticon, which allowed the observation of many prisoners by a single security guard. 

About animals, Bentham said:  "The question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they suffer?". An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, 1789.

He was  also ahead of his time by wearing underpants and there are claims that Bentham actually invented underpants (1.)

However, when Howard Carter discovered Tutankhamun's (1341 BC – c. 1323 BCE) tomb in 1922, among the treasures were also 145 loincloths. Do they count as underpants?

Oldest Civilisations. What is a Civilisation?

The word civilisation comes from the Latin word civis, meaning citizen, and civitas, meaning city.

A civilisation pertains to organised social and political structure, while culture focuses on shared beliefs, values, and customs.

The oldest civilisations are Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient India, and Ancient China.

A civilisation is a complex human society that has certain features. These are: Living in settled organised groups like towns, not in small tribes or isolated family groups, division of labor, some form of keeping records, social stratification, a written script, central government providing infrastructure and administration, division of labour, with people working on specialised tasks, agriculture, monuments like Egyptian Pyramids.

Civilization first appeared in Mesopotamia and Egypt by c. 3000 BCE, India by c. 2800 BCE, China by about c. 1500 BCE.

The Fertile Crescent (circa 7500 BCE), often called the “cradle of civilization”, which stretches from parts of modern Palestine and Israel through Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, and Iraq to the Zagros Mountains in Iran, are the oldest areas in the world where agriculture was practiced and probably the first where the first sedentary farming villages existed.

Mesopotamia, centered between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (present-day Iraq), developed one of the first written scripts around 3000 BCE, using wedge-shaped marks pressed into clay tablets. Excavations have revealed human settlements dating to 10,000 BCE in Mesopotamia.

Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia, regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature. Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg)

Ancient Egyptian civilisation in northeastern Africa dates from the 4th millennium BCE. This civilisation lasted for almost 30 centuries. Hieroglyphics, the writing system invented in Egypt, emerged around 5000 years ago. 

The Indus River Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization), 3300-1300 BCE, extended from modern-day northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan. This civilisation is noted for its urban panning with baked brick houses, complex drainage systems and water supply systems.

Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, Sindh province, Pakistan, showing the Great Bath in the foreground. Mohenjo-daro, on the right bank of the Indus River, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the first site in South Asia to be so declared. Saqib Qayyum

Ancient China had various distinct civilisations and ethnic groups, including the Yellow River civilization, the Yangtze civilization, and Liao civilization. Millet agriculture in China dates to around 7000 BCE.

These Chinese civilisations had craftsmen and administrators, and the earliest form of proto-writing in China were the Jiahu symbols (6600 BCE).

1258 BCE: The World's First Peace Treaty

The Treaty of Kadesh of 1258 BCE, between Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II and king of the Hittite empire Ḫattušili III, is considered the first-ever formal peace treaty between two nations.

The treaty was signed, ending a two centuries long war between the Hittite Empire and the Egyptians, over control the eastern Mediterranean.

After the attempted Egyptian invasion in 1274 BCE, repelled by the Hittites in the city of Kadesh, now Syria, the Egyptians and Hittites had heavy casualties, but neither triumphed. The conflict then continued for another 15 years. 

Finally, with Egypt threatened by the “Sea Peoples” and the Hittites alarmed by Assyria to the east, both wanted to end the conflict.

So, intermediaries met and negotiated without the two monarchs ever meeting, with the treaty ratified in 1258 BCE.

Eight years after the treaty was signed, the Hittite Empire collapsed.

 

The Egyptian version of the peace treaty was engraved in hieroglyphics on the walls of two temples belonging to Pharaoh Ramesses II in Thebes.

The Hittite clay tablet versions were found in the Hittite capital of Hattusa in present-day Turkey.

Two of the Hittite tablets are displayed at the Museum of the Ancient Orient, part of the Istanbul Archaeology Museums. While the third is displayed in the Berlin State Museums in Germany. 

The Egyptian version of the peace treaty was engraved in hieroglyphics on the walls of two temples belonging to Pharaoh Ramesses II in Thebes, at the Temple of Karnak. The Hittite version was found in the Hittite capital of Hattusa, in today Turkey (Boğazköy) and is preserved on baked clay tablets uncovered among the Hittite royal palace's sizable archives.

Egyptian-Hethite peace treaty on the western outer wall of the Cachette farm in the temple of Karnak, Luxor, Egypt.

The Oldest Trousers Found

Two pairs of trousers discovered in a cemetery in western China when Radiocarbon dated, were revealed to be made between the thirteenth and tenth centuries B.C., making them the oldest known surviving pants by almost 1,000 years.

Mayke Wagner, from the German Archaeological Institute, said the dates amazed the study team. He said, “In most places on Earth, 3,000-year-old garments are destroyed by microorganisms and chemicals in the soil”. 

It is believed that the people buried wearing the pants were probably prestigious warriors who functioned like police officers, wearing trousers while riding on horseback. 

“The trousers were part of their uniform, and the fact that they were made between 100 and 200 years apart means it was a standard, traditional design,” says Wagner, whose team worked with a fashion designer to re-create the garments. “They are surprisingly good-looking, but they are not particularly comfortable for walking.” 

Read more: Archaeological Institute of America

The Oldest Trousers Found. Two pairs of trousers discovered in a cemetery in western China, made between the thirteenth and tenth centuries B.C. 

The Lebombo bone: The Oldest Known Mathematical Tool

The Lebombo bone, the oldest known mathematical tool, has 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut.

The bone tool, made from a baboon fibula, was discovered in the Lebombo Mountains, located between South Africa and Eswatini. 

The bone is between 44,200 and 43,000 years old, according to 24 radiocarbon datings.

Many Archaeologists believe that the Lebombo bone is a tally stick, a device used to record and document numbers, quantities and messages.

 Another view is that it may have been used as a lunar phase counter for menstrual cycles (The Universal Book of Mathematics, 2004).

However, the Lebombo bone is likely the first mathematical object in the world.

The Ishango bone is on permanent exhibition at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences

A 2000 Year-Old Child's Shoe

A child's shoe found by archeologists in the western village of Dürrnberg, Austria, is believed to be more than 2,000 years old. 

The shoe was found, along with a fragment of a wooden shovel blade and remains of fur with lacing, perhaps from a fur hood, in an area where rock salt mining took place from as early as the Iron Age.

The shoe is in outstanding condition, as salt is good for preserving organic remains.

The leather shoe's size roughly corresponds to EU 30 (US 12).

The 2000 Year-Old Bridge That Connected England and Wales

Crossing the River Wye at Chepstow in the UK, archaeologists have discovered a 2,000-year-old wooden bridge connecting England and Wales.

Although the bridge was discovered and partially excavated in 1911, it has since been buried in mud, and detective work was required to discover the bridge's exact location.

Evidence of a wooden bridge connecting England and Wales around 2,000 years ago

Evidence of a wooden bridge connecting England and Wales around 2,000 years ago

The bridge, believed to have been built by the Romans 2,000 years ago, was found preserved in mud about half a mile upstream of Chepstow to the village of Tutshill in Gloucestershire.

Timber samples will undergo carbon dating to determine the exact age of the bridge. 

Previously, evidence of prehistoric, Roman and Anglo-Saxon fortifications were found at Chepstow, and a 12th-century Norman castle built by he Norman Lord William FitzOsbern is located there.

Chepstow Castle (Welsh: Castell Cas-gwent) at Chepstow, Monmouthshire, Wales is the oldest surviving post-Roman stone fortification in Britain

When 50 percent of Europe's population Died

Millions of people in Europe died from plague during the Black Death, though areas were not uniformly devastated by the epidemic.

The Black Death was an illness caused by bacteria (yersinia pestis) carried by fleas that lived on black rats. It caused fever, vomiting, coughing up blood, black pustules on the skin, and swollen lymph nodes. Then, 3 days later, often death.

Plague had killed millions in the early 1840s in China, India, Persia, Syria and Egypt.

In Florence, about 60% of people died of plague in 1648.

In 1348/9, plague came to Britain killing between 30-40% of the population. This is at a time when the population of Britain is estimated at 5-6 million people. 

Frighteningly, it is estimated that up to two-thirds of the clergy of England died within a single year.

Milan, an Italian city-state, had a ruler, Visconti Luchino, a dictator who was able to stop almost all travellers into the city. Milan’s death rate was about 15 percent.

The 13th and 14th centuries in Europe had already been a time of great hardship. The climate had cooled, weather patterns were erratic, and crops often failed.

During the Great Famine of 1315–17, about 15% of the population of England and Wales died. Bodies found from this period are shorter and show signs of manuitrition. So, by the time the Black Death arrived, populations were already weakened. 

However, weak and poor died alike. As chronicler Gilles Li Muisis wrote in France, where about half of the population died from plague, "neither the rich, the middling sort, nor the pauper was secure; each had to await God's will".

Olive Oil First Used for Lighting Lamps

The olive plant, from fossil evidence, dates from the Oligocene period, about 20 to 40 million years ago.

Some research claims that around 100,000 years ago, olives were used by people on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, for fuel management and probably for consumption. (1.)
 
Domestication of the olive plant dates from between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago, in the Eastern Mediterranean. (Levant: modern-day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Palestine and Israel)

During an excavation, 8,000-year-old olive oil was found in ancient clay pots, in the Lower Galilee region of northern Israel.

While the oldest oil lamp was found in the cave of Lasceau, France, in a cave inhabited between 15,000 and 10,000 BC, olive oil is believed to have been first used to light lamps in the Mediterranean. 

The earliest lamps were simply a bowl filled with olive oil, with a wick.

The earliest evidence of olive fruit processing (olive presses) to make olive oil, dates to about 7,000 years ago, in the Jordan Valley, Israel.

Israel, Jerusalem, BYU Center, A reproduction of an ancient lever based press for extracting olive oil on display

Olive trees can live and bear fruit for thousands of years.

Archaeological evidence suggests that Early Bronze Age trade (from 3300 BC to 1200 BC) in edible olives and olive oil was extensive.

Liberty Biblical Museum claims that olive oil lamps evolved through the Bronze Age.

The export of olive oil from Palestine to Egypt is well documented in the Bronze Age.
 

A 2,300-year-old olive Oil lamp, in good condition, was found on Israel's West Bank.

A nearly completely intact clay oil lamp from 2,300 years ago was found near a stone bath during recent conservation work at the Mount Gerizim National Park

The first known European recipe book called De Re Coquinaria, written around the first century C.E., has instructions on how to keep olives fresh enough to press them for oil.

Since Byzantine times, olive oil was used to light lamps in temples and monasteries.

In 2021, a 2000-year-old amphora, ceramic pot, used to transport olive oil in Roman times, was found in a Swiss riverbed. The earliest surviving olive oil amphorae dates to 3,500 BC.